Essay about the values of Enlightenment and Romanticism through

About the estimations of Enlightenment and Romanticism through work of art - Essay Example History has given us that man moves in pendulous manners. From nature to divine, from motivation to emotions, from private to open, from goal to abstract. Craftsmanship is the perfect outline for these developments, and this article will talk about the differentiating esteems showed in two artistic creations having a place with the recorded developments of the Enlightenment and Romanticism: William Blake's Newton (1795), and Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich. Despite the fact that Blake is viewed as generally a sentimental antecedent in craftsmanship, in this specific canvas, he portrays definitely the most trademark estimations of the Enlightenment period. I will likewise incorporate a regularly illumination period painting, Mr and Mrs Andrews by Thomas Gainsborough (1748-49), so as to legitimately differentiate the diverse movements.The Enlightenment time, which had a place with the Age of Reason, depicts an authentic scholarly development of the eighteenth ce ntury, which pushed reasonability as a way to build up a definitive arrangement of morals, style, and information. The scholarly pioneers of this development viewed themselves as gallant and tip top, and viewed their motivation as driving the world toward progress and out of a significant stretch of suspicious convention, loaded with unreasonableness, odd notion, and oppression currently designated as the Dark Age. (Cassirer, 1992).The Enlightenment had faith in a levelheaded, deliberate and conceivable universe. It lauded the goals of freedom, property and soundness which are as yet conspicuous as the reason for most political methods of reasoning even in the current period. Science came to be the new man's religion, and dependent on the progressive thoughts like Newton's, it was imagined that all the facts of the world could be known by a precise method of applying uniform laws. William Blake, an English writer and painter, made a progression of pictures of Newton as an awesome geometer while living in Lambeth in the late 1790s. Newton is depicted here as a researcher, and yet as an awesome figure, a maker. He is interpreting the laws of the world with his compass. The compass represents the creation. We can obviously comprehend that objectivity turns into the highest caliber of people, and it challenges the presence of an awesome being answerable for the creation. The illumination was an insubordination to the Middle Ages where confidence wasn't to be addressed. Similarly, Romanticism was an insubordination to this time of reason. The Romantics found the Enlightenment perspective unnecessarily impartial. With reason being the base for mankind's advancement, the enthusiastic side of man was saved. Sentimentalism focused on forceful feeling which may incorporate fear, wonderment and awfulness as stylish encounters the individual creative mind as a basic power, which allowed opportunity inside or even from old style ideas of structure in workmanship, and upsetting of past social shows, especially the situation of the nobility. (Sentimentalism, article by Wikepedia) Here is a painting of this creative development, Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich, a nineteenth century German painter. His artistic creations depict the untamed intensity of nature; this is in sharp complexity to Enlightenment-period painters who utilized nature to bring out characteristics in their human subjects. Mr and Mrs Andrews Vagabond Above the Sea of Fog What we can acknowledge in the left work of art is the intensity of nature versus the defenselessness of a man, a man who is distant from everyone else against the world, a drifter. The sentimental perspective is accused of feelings, for example, delicacy, show, enthusiasm, and destiny. The character here portrayed is by all accounts at the edge of a void. In the subsequent artwork, nature is utilized on the contrary way, to draw out the characteristics in the human subjects, the blue-bloods. The shades of Friedrich's painting express the sentiments of vulnerability, depression and defenselessness. While in, Gainsborough's Mr and Mrs Andrew, there is progressively a feeling of certainty and security. Nature is unquestionably more

Corcordancing In The Cop And The Anthem Essay Example For Students

Corcordancing In The Cop And The Anthem Essay Concordancing in The Cop and The AnthemA concordancer is one of the least complex yet , simultaneously, most useful assets to evoke specific kinds of data in a fast and successful manner from the differing corpora accessible these days. Concordancers have been broadly utilized in etymology, most importantly in content sort examines which depend on quantitative examination. There have been noteworthy improvement in corpus phonetics during ongoing years. However etymology isn't the main field where concordancers may demonstrate helpful. Artistic analysis may likewise be profited by it. This paper contends for the utilization of concordances to scholarly messages. As a very incredible theory testing gadget on immense measures of information, the PC permits controlled hypothesis, makes concealed structures noticeable, upgrades simultaneously creative mind and checks it by inductivity, in this way making higher degrees of objectivity conceivable .Here I pick as point the plot and portraya l and composing style in a celebrated short story by an American essayist O. Henry The Cop and The Anthem . The concordancing programs I use for this situation is Wconcord and Wordsmith . I load the content The Cop and The Anthem into Wordsmith. It gives some broad insights about the text:Bytes13,892 Tokens2,374Types965Type/Token Ratio40.65Standardised Type/Token48.85Ave. Word Length4.54Sentences117Sent.length20.15sd. Sent. Length16.66Para. length1,187.00sd. Para. length1,667.361-letter words852-letter words3503-letter words5634-letter words370For this content the bytes is 13,892 and the tokens are2,374 and the sentences are 117,which can be deciphered as a sign for a short book. Its token/proportion is 40.65.This can be deciphered as a sign for a center leveled variety in jargon. It’s sentence length is 20.15, which means sentences in this content are for some time contrasted with some simple messages .The quantity of its section length is 1187.00. This implies the passages in this content isn't long as a rule. In the event that we in addition to add up to quantities of 1-letter 2-letter 3-letter and 4-letter words we can know the words under 4 letters are 136 8 together. In any case, the tokens in the content is 2374. In this way 43 percent of the words are more than 4-letter words. Along these lines we may anticipate this content is moderate estimated in trouble. We are in this way defied with a short book fair measured in trouble. At that point I load this content into Wconcord. The recurrence list in Wconcord yields some intriguing material . Coming up next is the 244 most continuous words(Other following words simply show up once.). This causes us structure a thought regarding what the story is about. Word recurrence F% The |168| 7.179|And |93| 3.974|A |72| 3.077|Of |67| 2.863|His |57| 2.436|To |56| 2.393|Soapy |48| 2.051|He |43| 1.838|In |40| 1.709|S |22| 0.940|Was |22| 0.940|That |21| 0.897|Would |21| 0.897|Him |20| 0.855|At |19| 0.812|On |18| 0.769|With |18| 0.769|Had |17| 0.726|Policeman |17|It |15| 0.641|For |14| 0.598|You |13| 0.556|As |12| 0.513|Be |12| 0.513|An |11| 0.470|Said |11| 0.470|But |10| 0.427|Emdash |9| 0.385|Umbrella |9| 0.385|I |8| 0.342|Island |8| 0.342|One |8| 0.342|By |7| 0.299|Into |7| 0.299|Man |7| 0.299|No |7| 0.299|Not |7| 0.299|Seemed |7| 0.299|Set |7| 0.299|Young |7| 0.299|Against |6| 0.256|Bench |6| 0.256|Cop 6| 0.256|Himself |6| 0.256|Is |6| 0.256|Made |6| 0.256|Out |6| 0.256|Page |6| 0.256|There |6| 0.256|This |6| 0.256|Upon |6| 0.256|Were |6| 0.256|When |6| 0.256|Where |6| 0.256|Woman |6| 0.256|About |5| 0.214|Call |5| 0.214|Cigar |5| 0.214|Corner |5| 0.214|Don |5| 0.214|From |5| 0.214|Hands |5| 0.214|If |5| 0.214|Its |5| 0.214|Mind |5| .214|Moved |5| 0.214|Restaurant |5| 0.214|Square |5| 0.214|Street |5| 0.214|T |5| 0.214|Two |5| 0.214|Winter |5| 0.214|Without |5| 0.214|Again |4| 0.171|Are |4| 0.171|Away |4| 0.171|Coat |4| 0.171|Come |4| 0.171|O |4| 0.171|Hand |4| 0.171|Have |4| 0.171|Little |4| 0.171|Ready |4| 0.171|Word Frequency F%So |4| 0.171|Their |4| 0.171|Them |4| 0.171|Then |4| 0.171|Three |4| 0.171|Through |4| 0.171|Time |4| 0.171|Turned |4| 0.171|Up |4| 0.171|Waiter |4| 0.171|Well |4| 0.171|Who |4| 0.171|Window |4| 0.171|Ambitions |3| 0.128|Anthem |3| 0.128|Been |3| 0.128|Before |3| 0.128|Broadway |3| 0.128|Came |3| 0.128|Caught |3| 0.128|Table |3| 0.128|They |3| 0.128|Thought |3| 0.128|Took |3| 0.128|Uneasily |3| 0.128|Walked |3| 0.128|What |3| 0.128|Which |3| 0.128|Why |3| 0.128|Above |2| 0.085|Across |2| 0.085|Along |2| 0.085|Annual |2| 0.085|Arm |2| 0.085|Around |2| 0.085|Arrest |2| 0.085|Avenue |2| 0.085|Bed |2| 0.085|Blocks |2| 0.085|Caf? |2| 0.085|Church |2| 0.085|Club |2| 0.085|Coats |2| 0.085|Word Frequenc y F%Coin |2| 0.085|Coming |2| 0.085|Course |2| 0.085|Days |2| 0.085|Dead |2| 0.085|District |2| 0.085|Door |2| 0.085|Doubt |2| 0.085|Entering |2| 0.085|Even |2| 0.085|Face |2| 0.085|Fact |2| 0.085|Fate |2| 0.085|Feel |2| 0.085|Fell |2| 0.085|Fence |2| 0.085|Find |2| 0.085|Followed |2| 0.085|Four |2| 0.085|Front |2| 0.085|Gentleman |2| 0.085|Go |2| 0.085|Halted |2| 0.085|Hat |2| 0.085|Heart |2| 0.085|Here |2| 0.085|High |2| 0.085|Hope |2| 0.085|Jack |2| 0.085|Joint |2| 0.085|Kind |2| 0.085|Know |2| 0.085|Lady |2| 0.085|Lap |2| 0.085|Large |2| 0.085|Left |2| 0.085|Life |2| 0.085|Like |2| 0.085|Looked |2| 0.085|Magistrate |2| 0.085|Make |2| 0.085|Mallard |2| 0.085|Masher |2| 0.085May |2| 0.085|Missionary |2| 0.085|Modest |2| 0.085|More |2| 0.085|Mugs |2| 0.085|My |2| 0.085|Near |2| 0.085|Next |2| 0.085|Night |2| 0.085|Officer |2| 0.085|Once |2| 0.085|Organist |2| 0.085|Park |2| 0.085|Philanthropy |2| 0.085|Place |2| 0.085|Presented |2| 0.085|Private |2| 0.085|Quarters |2| 0.085|Route | 2| 0.085|Running |2| 0.085|Sabbath |2| 0.085|Shaving |2| 0.085|Shoes |2| 0.085|Show |2| 0.085|Sidewalk |2| 0.085|Smiled |2| 0.085|Soul |2| 0.085|Spirit |2| 0.085|Steps |2| 0.085|Still |2| 0.085|Store |2| 0.085|Streets |2| 0.085|Sure |2| 0.085|Sweet |2| 0.085|Taken |2| 0.085|Thin |2| 0.085|Things |2| 0.085|Together |2| 0.085|Toward |2| 0.085|Trousers |2| 0.085|Voice |2| 0.085|Watching |2| 0.085|Ways |2| 0.085|Wind |2| 0.085|Women |2| 0.085|Yet |2| 0.085|Your |2| 0.085|From this proof it tends to be inferred that the story at any point occurred on the recreation center? island? corner? restaurantstreet? Broadway ?Madison Square? caf church? club ,and so on in winter. It’s about an individual named Soapy who had something to do with a cop? a lady ?a server? a man and an official. This is the second to proceed onward to concordance. A concordance of Soapy and he will yield a few activities performed by Soapy and in this manner the fundamental plot of this short story can be showe d unmistakably ( chose lines as it were). . On his seat in Madison Square, | Soapy | moved precariously. kind to their spouses, and when | Soapy | moves precariously on his benchand the Riviera each winter, so | Soapy | had made his unassuming plans for his | Soapy | left his seat and walked But as | Soapy | set foot in side the café entryway the | Soapy | killed Broadway. | Soapy | took a cobblestone and ran it through | Soapy | stopped, with his hands in his pocket | Soapy | , with appall in his heart, daydreamed alone Into this spot | Soapy | took his accusive shoes and tellta Five squares | Soapy | went before his mental fortitude allowed tight little isle | Soapy | fixed the woman missionarys prepared With a large portion of an eye | Soapy | saw that the cop was watching him | Soapy | followed, intensely venturing to her sideinging ivy to his oak | Soapy | strolled past the cop defeat with On the walkway | Soapy | started to holler intoxicated hogwash at the Disconsolate, | Soapy | stopped his unavailing racket. | Soap y | ventured inside, made sure about the umbrella and | Soapy | strolled eastbound through a road harmed finally | Soapy | arrived at one of the roads toward the eastunusually tranquil corner | Soapy | ground to a halt. song of devotion that the organist played established | Soapy | to the iron fence, He would | Soapy | felt a hand laid on his arm. At the edges of four boulevards | he | hands his pasteboard toward the North And | in this way | he | moved precariously on his seat. H neglected to shock the cold as | he | dozed on his seat close to the prodding and eleemosynary, on which | he | may set out and get Up Broadway | he | turned, and stopped at a sparkling caf With drawn club | he | participated in the interest. At a table | he | sat and devoured beefsteak, hotcakes, And then to the server | he | sold out the way that the minutes| He | emerged joint by joint, as a woodworkers Already be envisioned | he | could feel tile comfortable warmth of the sta At the following corner | he | shook off his friend and ran. | He | stopped in the area where by near frenzy upon it and when | he | happened upon another cop relaxing g transplendent theater | he | got | at the prompt straw of diso | He | moved, wailed, raved, and otherwise|He | secured his flimsy coat against the chi In a stogie store | he | saw a sharp looking man ]lighting a cig | He | flung the umbrella furiously into a | He | murmured against the men who wear hel| He | put his face down this toward Madison | He | saw with quick loathsomeness the pit into the pit into which | he | had tumbled, the debased days, unwort | He | glanced rapidly around into the wide fFrom the collocations of Soapy and he we can know the fundamental plot of the story: (1)Soapy moved precariously on his seat in winter. He may embark to search for his lodgings. At that point he made his game plan. (2) Soapy sneaked out of the recreation center and ended at a caf? upon Broadway. However, he killed Broadway. (3) Soapy took a cob blestone and ran a window . At that point he stopped . (4) Soapy lounged alone with appall in his brain. After that he sat and expended beefsteak and pancakes at a table. Yet, to the server he deceived something and it appeared he was beaten. (5) Soapy voyaged once more. At the point when Soapy saw the police officer was watching him he followed a lady. Be that as it may, Soapy strolled past the cop securely. At the following corner he shook off his partner and fled. (6) On the walkway Soapy started to shout alcoholic

Formats of Income Statement and Balance Sheet Essay Example for Free

Configurations of Income Statement and Balance Sheet Essay Pay articulation: For the situation of sole restrictive and association worries there are no endorsed types of the pay explanation and monetary record. Their planning is likewise attractive however not mandatory. In any case, they are commonly arranged. On account of exchanging concern, an exchanging account and on account of an assembling concern, an assembling account and an exchanging record can likewise be readied. In such a case, the record heading is referenced as follows: Manufacturing/exchanging and benefit and misfortune account. On account of business entities arrangement of the benefit and misfortune record and monetary record each year is obligatory. There is no endorsed structure (with the exception of on account of banking and insurance agencies) of the salary proclamation or benefit and misfortune account. The record is titled as Profit and misfortune account The aftereffects of assembling and exchanging exercises may; notwithstanding, be demonstrated independently in the record. The benefit and misfortune account is generally arranged in a T shape. On account of business entity, the assembling, exchanging and benefit and misfortune account is set up in the above arrangement aside from with three adjustments: I.The heading given is just Profit and shortfall represent tax collection in the benefit and deficit account; II.The net benefit is appeared in the wake of making arrangements for tax collection in the benefit and deficit account; III.Figures, for the past period, assuming any, have additionally to be given. Benefit and misfortune allotment account: For the situation of business entities, a benefit and misfortune apportionment account is likewise arranged. It discloses concerning how the benefit earned during the period has been conveyed. Accounting report: There is no endorsed type of monetary record for a sole exclusive or an organization concern. Be that as it may, the advantages and liabilities might be appeared in any of the accompanying requests: I.Liquidity request II.Permanency Order on the off chance that the worry embraces liquidity request, the advantages which are all the more promptly convertible into money are considered at first and those which are not all that promptly convertible are considered in this way. Essentially those liabilities which are payable initially are considered at first and those payable later on are considered in this way, etc. On account of permanency request, the converse request is followed. According to the law appropriate to certain legislatures, each asset report of an organization will give a valid and reasonable perspective on the situation of the organization as toward the finish of the budgetary year. Essentially, every benefit and misfortune record of an organization will give a valid and reasonable perspective on the benefit or misfortune record of the organization for the money related year.

How Did Christianity Succeed In Becoming So Widespread In The Period Up To Diocletian - Free Essay Example

How did Christianity succeed in becoming so widespread in the period up to Diocletian despite the Roman persecution of Christians? It took Christianity a little under three hundred years to develop from a small, heretical Jewish cult based in the eastern provinces into the universal religion of the Roman Empire with churches and bishops ranging from Antioch and Edessa in the east to Lyons and Toledo in the west, and encompassing the North African cities of Carthage and Alexandria in the south. Just how an often persecuted sect managed to accomplish this is a complex issue that cannot be fully examined within the scope of this essay; rather it will focus on some aspects of early Christianity that allowed it to flourish and which could withstand the persecutions that took place from the second to the third centuries, concentrating on the eastern provinces, specifically Judaea, Phoenicia, Syria, Galatia and Bithynia-Pontus. (Chadwick, 1967) It is impossible to know what percentage of the population of the Empire considered themselves Christian. One suggestion is ten percent but this is an estimate and, as Brown points out, it is more significant that during the third century Christian communities grew quickly (Brown, 2013). The early Christian sources cannot be relied upon to provide an accurate picture, as Lane Fox notes; Christian authors â€Å"were quite uncritical in their use of words like ‘all’ and ‘everywhere’† (Lane Fox, 1988, p. 269). Eusebius, for example, described how the Apostles had been sent across the globe to preach: Thomas was sent to Parthia, Andrew to Scythia, John to Asia and Peter was allotted the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (Eusebius, 3:1). In order to consider what impact persecution had on the spread of Christianity, it is necessary to consider the way Christianity spread; and in particular what was it about this religion that set it apart from the pagan cults (and Judaism) that could both attract followers and help it withstand persecution. There are a number of reasons why Christianity flourished in the period between the end of the first century and Diocletian’s Great Persecution at the start of the fourth. The nature of Christianity and its emphasis on charity and hospitality; a shared sacred text; the close-knit structure of the early Church; the way it appealed to all levels of society; the very act of persecution itself, the nature of the pagan cults it was competing with and the wide-ranging trade routes across the Empire, are just a few. (Chadwick, 1967; Lane Fox, 1988) Christian groups shared a set of beliefs and ideals based around the preaching of salvation and it can be argued that this unity of beliefs is what strengthened Christianity and allowed it to flourish. Christians shared a meal recollecting the sacrifice of their saviour and were encouraged to regard themselves as a family, calling each other â€Å"brother† and â€Å"sister† and to greet each other with a kiss. Individual communities possessed similar structures, particularly during the late second and third centuries, which emphasised their unity. This was certainly the view of Origen when responding to the allegations of the second-century philosopher Celsus who acknowledged the unity of Christians but believed it to be based on â€Å"no trustworthy foundation† other than their â€Å"unity in revolt (†¦) and fear of outsiders† (3:14, Chadwick, 1953, p. 136). Origen states that Christianity does have a firm foundation in divine doctrine and God’s law. (3:15, Chadwick, 1953). The message that everyone was subject to the same divine law and could achieve salvation through renunciation of sins was unique to Christianity. This was a message upon which persecution could have no impact; indeed persecution offered devout Christians the opportunity to emulate their saviour and make the ultimate sacrifice for their faith; persecution encouraged martyrdom. Whilst elements of early Christian practice, such as the celebratory meal and offering practical support for fellow supporters, can be seen in some pagan cults at this time, what set Christianity apart was its shared sacred text. It must be acknowledged that Christianity and Judaism are very similar in this regard, however, the New Testament, works by Origen and other early Christian philosophers and those condemning the Gnostic practices of the Coptic Church as heresy show that different Christian groups were discussing and exchanging views on important topics. In this way early Christian thinkers, the ‘Church Fathers’ were formulating a common, orthodox canon of beliefs which were set down in documents that were shared amongst the communities. (Clark, 2004) The early Christians did not worship in what we would recognise as churches; they held assemblies which acted as a family unit, providing not only spiritual but practical support to its members. (Chadwick, 1697; Brown, 2 013) They met in the homes of individual Christians and these houses were extended to accommodate the growing community, as at Dura Europos in Mesopotamia, a private house which was extended at some point in the 240s to add a hall large enough to accommodate up to sixty people (Lane Fox, 1988). It is perhaps significant, therefore, that no Imperial edict against the Christians, even that of Decian, specifically mentioned destroying churches until the Great Persecution of Diocletian at the start of the fourth century. Whilst the community might consider itself a church, there was no physical building, like a synagogue, which pinpointed them within the landscape of the town or city. In effect the church was mobile and could relocate as and when persecution made it necessary and meant Christianity could spread easily. One of the key principles of Christianity was its emphasis on acts of charity and supporting those in need, based around Matthew 25:38-40. (Clark 2004) No other religious group in the Empire held provision for the poor as a key doctrine, but Christians were duty-bound to offer not only spiritual but practical help to those less fortunate than themselves. (Chadwick, 1967) Eusebius quotes a letter of Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria, describing how Christians helped nurse the sick and dying of all religions during an outbreak of plague and helped to bury the dead, whereas the pagans abandoned the sick (even family members), to their fate. (Eusebius, 7: 22 7-10) As Clark (2004), following MacMullen, notes; nursing the sick might convince people that Christians had a special religious protection; their belief in suffering and salvation and stories of healing miracles could, perhaps, be more effective than doctrine in winning converts. The notion of charity was not confined to offering comfort and solace; one of the ideas Christianity had inherited from Judaism was giving alms for â€Å"the remission of sin† (Brown, 2013, p. 69). The idea that money earned in this world, by whatever means, could help its owner earn their place in the next through the remission of his or her sins meant that churches were able to accumulate wealth. The pagan temples of the large cities depended on donations from the wealthy whereas the average Christians making donations for the salvation of their souls were tradesmen. This meant that during times of financial disaster, as in the third century, the Christian communities were better able to withstand a crisis. The church developed structures and systems to ensure this wealth was distributed to where it was needed and Christians acquired a reputation for taking care of their own; widows and orphans as well as the sick and the destitute were all embraced in this institutionalised alms giving. (Brown, 2013; Clark, 2004)Thus the knowledge that your community was duty bound to offer practical assistance in times of need could easily be argued as a contributing factor to the sp read of Christianity, again one on which persecution would have little impact. This did not mean that Christianity developed into a religion of the poor; rather it embraced all ranks from slaves and tradesmen up to the higher echelons of society: Marcia the concubine of Emperor Commodus was Christian, as were King Agbar VIII of Osrhoene and Julius Africanus from Palestine (Brown, 2013 and Clark 2004). When considering the impact persecutions had on the spread of Christianity, the nature of these persecutions has to be taken into consideration. During the second and third centuries, there were two periods of persecution: the sporadic, isolated persecutions that were confined to specific areas during the second and early third centuries; and the Emperor led persecutions of Decian and Valerian which culminated in the Great Persecutions under Diocletian and Galerius. Our best evidence for the nature of these earlier persecutions comes from Pliny’s letter to Trajan, written c. 112 (Ep. 10:96, Radice, 1969, p. 293). Pliny, governor of Bithynia-Pontus, wrote to the Emperor asking for guidance on how to treat Christians arrested in his province. The letter describes how he had tortured two female slaves to obtain information about the activities of Christians and asks for advice on how he should conduct trials of suspected Christians who were brought before him as a result of anonymous allegations. Trajan’s reply makes it clear that only known Christians should be prosecuted and anonymous allegations should not be considered and those simply suspected of being Christian should not be sought out. This shows that during this time there was no clear policy of persecution coming from the Roman authorities. Similarly, Eusebius includes a letter from Trajan’s successor, Hadrian, written to Pliny’s successor, Minicius Fundanus, reaffirming this position; Christians should not be sought out directly, but those correctly accuse d under Roman law, should be punished (Eusebius, 4:9). Once again Eusebius’ evidence must be approached with caution; as with any Christian author he cannot be considered a reliable witness to the persecution of his own kind. When taken together, however, the evidence of both the pagan Roman official Pliny and the Christian Eusebius does indicate that there was no official policy of widespread persecution of Christians during the second century. Moreover, as St Croix (1963), illustrates, accusations against individuals were not likely to be made falsely as the person making the allegation had to carry out the prosecution, rendering themselves liable for a charge of calumnia (malicious prosecution) if they could not make a satisfactory case against the alleged Christian. Decian’s edict of 250 represents the changing situations of both the Empire and the Christian church. By this period Christianity had spread across the whole Empire; an empire which had been suffering from years of civil war and was in something of a crisis and in need of assistance from its gods (Clark, 2004). The edict issued by Decian in 249-250 did not specifically target Christianity, though Christian writers chose to interpret it as a direct attack; rather it required all citizens to make sacrifices to the gods and obtain proof of this in the form of a special certificate. It is clear that many Christians did suffer as a result of this edict; Babylas of Antioch and Alexander of Jerusalem were amongst many notable church leaders who lost their lives. Others, however, preferred to go into hiding or buy certificates from friendly magistrates. The impact of this edict was, therefore, twofold: it created a new generation of martyrs from those who refused to sacrifice and were punished for it; and caused schism within the church regarding what to do about those (mainly in the east) who fled or bought their certificates. Neither had any detrimental effect on the sp read of Christianity; martyrs were admired and acted as inspiration for the faithful and the debate regarding those who went into hiding helped to develop Church doctrine. As noted above, persecution created martyrs who were held up as examples to be followed: men and women who had endured physical pain and suffering like Jesus on the cross. Christian writers praised their bravery and courage, recording their heroic suffering in Acts and Passions which were copied and disseminated throughout the Christian world, raising them to the status of saint. Martyrdom and the development of the cult of saints are other key topics to consider when looking at the spread of Christianity and its reaction to persecution, but ones which cannot be discussed here. The ideas discussed above: the nature of Christianity, the unity provided by shared sacred texts and church organisation, the emphasis on charity and personal redemption; are just a few of the reasons this fledging cult was able to flourish and spread throughout the Roman Empire, covering not only the Eastern Provinces but also those in the west. There has been little room here to give them the full discussion they deserve, or to consider other factors such as the wide-ranging trade routes across the Empire that allowed Christians to travel and spread their faith; or to consider the way families were converted. What can be seen, however, is that Christianity was a religion with a unified belief structure that appealed to a wide cross-section of society and which offered practical help for those in need, including members of society that were often marginalised. Persecution did not stop the spread of Christianity, nor did it drive it underground. In the face of persecution most Christians remained steadfast; secure in the knowledge that their physical pain and suffering in this life would lead to reward in the next. Reference List: Primary Sources: Eusebius, Church History [online] Available from: Christian Classics Ethereal Library [online] https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.viii.i.html [Accessed 14 February 2015] Chadwick, H. (1953) Origen, Contra Celsum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Radice, B. (1969) The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Secondary Works: Brown, P. (2013) The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D 200-1000. 10th Anniversary Revised Ed. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Chadwick, H. (1967) The Early Church. London: Penguin. Clark, G. (2004) Christianity and Roman Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lane Fox, R. (1988) Pagans and Christians in the Mediterranean world from the second century AD to the conversion of Constantine. London: Penguin. MacMullen, R. (1984) Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. St Croix, G.E.M de (1963) Why Were Early Christians Persecuted? Past and Present. 26. P. 6-38.

Treating Transgender Youth - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2661 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/08/07 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Transgender Essay Did you like this example? ABSTRACT Site a statistical or longitudinal study in Abstract (Intro Summary) Keywords: Transgender, Gender Nonconforming, Gender Queer, Gender Non-Binary, Gender Fluid, Gender Minority, Gender-Affirmative Care, Puberty Blockers, Hormone Blockers, Puberty Suppression, Gender-Affirming Hormones INTRODUCTION Gender identity refers to an individuals psychological sense of ones gender as male, female, or other (Connolly et al., 2016). Gender identity is understood to be a complex intersection of biology, development, and socialization within a cultural context and research suggests that children develop a strong sense of gender identity at a young age, primarily influenced by cognitions and emotions, rather than by physically identifiable sex characteristics (Hidalgo et al., 2013). Because gender identity develops between 1.5 3 years old (with sexual orientation developing as early as age 8), understanding how to work with transgender youth is essential for any professional working with children in the medical or mental health fields (Keo-Meier et al., 2018). Transgender refers to individuals whose sex assigned at birth is different from their current gender identity or gender expression (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Treating Transgender Youth" essay for you Create order The term transgender has been used as an umbrella term to describe all individuals who experience incongruence between their internal gender identity and birth-assigned sex, however this term also includes people who identify in between boy/girl or man/woman (Turban, 2017). New terms are emerging, including gender nonconforming, gender fluid, gender queer or gender non-binary that capture the broader group of gender-variant youth, beyond only individuals who identify as transgender (Connolly et al., 2016). Prevalence of TGNC Youth and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity The size of the transgender or gender nonconforming (TGNC) population has been historically difficult to measure and likely underestimated due to the range of stigma, discrimination and prejudice these individuals experience, which reduces self-identifying substantially (Cicero Wesp, 2017). According to recent research, the prevalence of young people who identify as TGNC in the United States is between 0.17% 1.3%, significantly higher than previously estimated (Connolly et al. 2016). In another important large school-based study of adolescents to determine the prevalence of TGNC identity in Minnesota was 2.7% and varied significantly across gender, race/ethnicity, and economic indicators (Eisenberg et al., 2017). Other previous research identified the rate of adults who identify as transgender as closer to 0.6% (Timmins et al., 2017). With additional research designed to specifically identify TGNC youth found for those seeking gender-affirming surgeries, middle and high school students were as high as 1% and 0.17% of college students vs. 0.015% of adults (Connolly et al., 2016). While incidence may still be fairly low as percentage of overall population, there has been a significant increase in the number of TGNC youth seeking medical and mental health services in the past decade (Shumer et al., 2016). As such, the mental health field is at a crossroads in defining standards of care given the ever-evolving understanding of gender development (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). While research identifies that there is no one specific biological, psychological or social factor that explains the development of gender-identity in youth, adolescence is considered the peak of identity formation and a particularly vulnerable time for TGNC youth (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). While still small as percentage of the overall population, TGNC adolescents experience elevated rates of mental health problems as compared to their cisgender peers (Chodzen et al., 2018); cisgender describes individuals who have a gender identity congruent with the sex they were assigned at birth (Cicero Wesp, 2017). Research has continually identified higher rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality that are statistically significant in the TGNC group vs the general population (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). While research has continually found higher rates of mental health issues among TGNC samples (Timmins et al., 2017), estimates of depression rates have varied from as low as 25.7% to as high as 64%, with a recent, important longitudinal study of TGNC youth identifying depressive symptoms in 41.3% of TGNC students (vs 11.8% for cisgender students) (Connolly et al., 2016). Similarly, this study found higher rates of suicidality of 19.8% in TGNC (vs just 4.1% for cisgender students) and self-harm rates of 45.5% (vs. 23.4% for cisgender students) (Connolly et al., 2016). Other studies have shown TGNC youth are at an increased risk of sucidality as young as age 5, increasing with age (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Other research has found that 38% of TGNC youth had an anxiety disorder diagnosis (Reisner et al., 2016) and of youth who present at gender clinics, anxiety disorders were present in 16.3 to 55% of patients (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Given the significant rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality in the TGNC youth population, understanding how best to approach treatment with this vulnerable population is imperative (Turban, 2017). The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) recognizes that much psychological distress is socially induced and not inherent to being transgender or gender nonconforming (Weber-Main et al., 2018). However, the TGNC community is one of the most stigmatized and marginalized groups in the United States and the health of TGNC individuals is at risk due to exposure to such discrimination (Cicero Wesp, 2017). Many, but not all, TGNC individuals experience gender dysphoria (GD), which has been defined as: emotional distress stemming from incongruence between an individuals birth-assigned sex and their subjective sense of self as male, female, or an alternate gender (Chen et al., 2016). Because there is no one experience of gender, WPATH recognizes that there are a variety of therapeutic options for individuals seeking care for GD, with differences in both the number and type of interventions, as well as the order in which these take place (Shumer et al., 2016). Other research confirms the lack of consensus regarding the best approach to clinical care with gender-diverse and transgender youth (Chen, et al., 2016). WHAT CAUSES IT? Bechard, et al., GD, but also other factors (NO?) According to the DSM-5, both children and teens meet the criteria for gender dysphoria (previously referred to as Gender Identity Disorder) if they experience a substantial difference between their experienced and assigned-at-birth gender, which causes significant distress or impaired functioning that lasts for at least 6 months (Shumer et al., 2017). [HERE OR LATER While it is estimated that of children who suffer from GD, only between 10-20% will have GD that persists into adolescence (Bizic et al., 2018).]]] Despite the lack of definitive consensus among mental health providers regarding treatment, both WPATH Standards of Care and The Endocrine Society clinical practice guidelines define comprehensive approaches aimed to alleviate mental health discrepancies and improve outcomes (Shumer et al., 2016). Due to the wide variety of gender identity and expressions, affirming a childs communication of his/her authentic gender is paramount for healthy growth and development (Cicero Werp, 2017). Pioneering research indicates the benefits of gender affirmative care, which encourages the best prospect for individuals to follow their own paths to find positive emotional welfare (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). Under the belief that gender may be fluid rather than binary, supporting a TGNC youth living in the gender that feels most real and comfortable promotes exploration of gender without presuming a fixed trajectory with regard to gender identity is the very definition of affirmative care (Chen et al., 2016). According to WPATH, gender affirmative care involves different protocols and can include physical/medical (both reversible and irreversible) interventions, social/environmental support, as well as psychological interventions (Weber-Main et al., 2018). Gender affirmative protocols, including early social transition, pubertal blockade, cross-sex hormonal therapy, and gender-affirming surgery in adulthood show promising early data on more favorable outcomes for transgender or TGNC youth (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). In addition, the first longitudinal study of patients undergoing comprehensive therapy for GD has shown data to support the notion that appropriate medical treatment for transgender or TGNC youth can lead to improved psychological functioning, with some question about the impact that puberty suppression (as part of the treatment protocols) have on this improved functioning (Connolly et al., 2016). Research indicates that the purpose of puberty suppression (or hormone blockers) is to relieve suffering caused by the development of secondary sex characteristics in puberty, to provide additional time to make a balanced decision regarding the permanent gender reassignment surgeries and to make living in the new gender identity more passable (Vrouenraets et al., 2015). There is evidence that TGNC youth who receive puberty blockers (as one component of gender affirmative care) show improvement in symptoms of psychological distress, including a reduction in self-report depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality. Given that puberty suppression falls into the category of fully reversible medical/physical interventions and often is an initial step into treatment (Connolly et al., 2016), it is important to understand how pubertal suppression impacts rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality in transgender or TGNC youth (ages 9-12 years old at the start of the study). Treating Psychiatric Co-morbidity Due to the higher rates of psychiatric comorbidity, the positive results or gender-affirming therapy and supported social transition in childhood are encouraging (Connolly et al., 2016). The first longitudinal study of patients receiving comprehensive therapy treating GD supports the conclusion that providing gender variant youth with proper medical treatment can improve psychological functioning. In addition, this study found that psychiatric symptoms might actually be driven by medical incongruence between mind and body, not primarily psychiatric (Connolly et al., 2016). Evidence also suggests that social transition in transgender youth (name, clothing, physical appearance, pronouns, etc) contributes to improved psychological functioning that comparable to medical interventions (Connolly et al., 2016). GD While it is estimated that of children who suffer from GD, only between 10-20% will have GD that persists into adolescence (Bizic et al., 2018). Seeking treatment Importance of mental health assessment (Bechard et al., 2017) Pioneering research indicates the benefits of gender affirmative care, which delivers the best prospect for TGNC youth to achieve positive emotional health. Interventions that align with gender affirmative care vary by developmental stage and cover both physical and mental health (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). This more accurate understanding of the prevalence of gender nonconformity in youth vs adults impacts the direction of future research, with potential increased focus on youth (Connolly et al., 2016). Evidence suggests improved psychological outcomes (with less internalizing psychopathology) for transgender adolescents who receive both puberty suppression and cross-sex hormonal treatment, outlined by the World Professional Association of Transgender Health Standards and the Endocrine Society guidelines from 2009. However, the author highlights the lack of consensus around treating prepubertal transgender children (WPATH). There are roughly 3 clinical approaches; 1) utilizing psychotherapeutic interventions to help transgender children identity with their birth-assigned sex (assuming gender identity is malleable), 2) exploring gender identity with the youth without any specific interventions to lessen cross-gender identification, but advising against social transition, 3) promoting open exploration of gender identity, including support of social transition for children who desire it. The benefits of early social transition yielding desirable outcomes was first published in 2016 by , et all. Subsequent studies have revealed further support, including child-report metrics for transgender youth who have socially transitioned showing depression and anxiety rates on par with cisgender peers; levels of self-worth also matched controls. These findings are significant, given that postpubertal social transition for transgender adolescents has been generally accepted as advantageous, however prepubertal social transition has been fairly contentious and unsupported until now (Olson G?lgez, 2017) Limitations New terms are emerging, including gender nonconforming, gender fluid, gender-queer or gender non-binary and additional research is needed to understand both prevalence and psychiatric comorbidity in the broader group of gender-variant youth (Connolly et al., 2016). While there has been an increase in recent research on optimal treatment protocols for transgender youth, few studies have been conducted on gender non-binary youth, such as understanding the effects of gender-affirming therapy; including, how to support a child in social transition if the child does not identify with any one specific gender? How do hormone blockers or affirming hormone therapy affect this population? In addition to expanding awareness for the need for more research on the experiences of subgroups of gender nonconforming youth, it is important to gather information from individuals in the general population, not just young people who present at gender clinics (a dominant source of past samples). Implications for understanding prevalence, psychological functioning, and treatment options are significant. While the authors provide an improved understanding of the prevalence of gender nonconformity/ transgender in adolescents/young adults, there is a lack of knowledge ab out transgender children younger than 10. As illustrated, more research on these subgroups of gender nonconforming youth will be critical before treatment protocols can be generalized. -Future research would benefit from considering subgroup differences (gender variant sample including both binary and nonbinary identification) (Reisner et al 2016) References Bechard, M., VanderLaan, D. P., Wood, H., Wasserman, L., Zucker, K. J. (2017). Psychosocial and psychological vulnerability in adolescents with gender dysphoria: A proof of principle study. Journal of Sex Marital Therapy, 43(7), 678â€Å"688. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2016.1232325 Bizic, M.R, Jeftovic, M., Pusica, S., Stojanovic, B., Duisin, D.,Vujovic, S., Rakic, V., Djordjevic, M.L. (2018). Gender Dysphoria: Bioethical Aspects of Medical Treatment. BioMed Research International, Vol 2018 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9652305 Chen, D, Hidalgo, M.A., Leibowitz, S., Leininger J., Simons, L., Finlayson, C., Garofalo, R., (2016). Multidisciplinary Care for Gender-Diverse Youth: Narrative Review and Unique Model of Gender-Affirming Care, Transgender Health, 1.1 https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/trgh.2016.0009 Chen, D., Edwards-Leeper, L., Stancin, T., Tishelman, A. (2018). Advancing the practice of pediatric psychology with transgender youth: State of the science, ongoing controversies, and future directions. Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology, 6(1), 73â€Å"83. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/cpp0000229 Chodzen, G., Hidalgo, M. A., Chen, D., Garofalo, R. (2018). Minority stress factors associated with depression and anxiety among transgender and gender-nonconforming youth. Journal of Adolescent Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.006 Cicero, E. C., Wesp, L. M. (2017). Supporting the Health and Well-Being of Transgender Students. Journal of School Nursing, 33(2), 95â€Å"108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840516689705 Connolly, M. D., Zervos, M. J., Barone, C. J., II, Johnson, C. C., Joseph, C. L. M. (2016). The mental health of transgender youth: Advances in understanding. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(5), 489â€Å"495. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016 Edwards-Leeper, L., Leibowitz, S., Sangganjanavanich, V. F. (2016). Affirmative practice with transgender and gender nonconforming youth: Expanding the model. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(2), 165â€Å"172. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd000 Eisenberg, M. E., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., Rider, G. N., Shea, G., Coleman, E. (2017). Original article: Risk and Protective Factors in the Lives of Transgender/Gender Nonconforming Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 521â€Å"526. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.014 Keo-Meier, C., Ehrensaft, D. (2018). Introduction to the gender affirmative model. In C. Keo-Meier D. Ehrensaft (Eds.), The gender affirmative model: An interdisciplinary approach to supporting transgender and gender expansive children. (pp. 3â€Å"19). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000095-001 Olson, K. R., G?lgez, S. (2017). Early findings from the TransYouth project: Gender development in transgender children. Child Development Perspectives. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/cdep.12268 Reisner, S. L., Katz-Wise, S. L., Gordon, A. R., Corliss, H. L., Austin, S. B. (2016). Original article: Social Epidemiology of Depression and Anxiety by Gender Identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59, 203â€Å"208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.04.006 Shumer, D. E., Nokoff, N. J., Spack, N. P. (2016). Advances in the Care of Transgender Children and Adolescents. Advances in Pediatrics, 63, 79â€Å"102. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.018 Timmins, L., Rimes, K. A., Rahman, Q. (2017). Minority stressors and psychological distress in transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(3), 328â€Å"340. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000237.supp (Supplemental) Turban, J. L. (2017). Transgender youth: The building evidence base for early social transition. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(2), 101â€Å"102. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.11.008 Turban, J. L., Ehrensaft, D. (2017). Research review: Gender identity in youth: Treatment paradigms and controversies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12833 Vrouenraets, L. J. J. J., Fredriks, A. M., Hannema, S. E., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., de Vries, M. C. (2015). Early medical treatment of children and adolescents with gender dysphoria: An empirical ethical study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(4), 367â€Å"373. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.004 World Professional Association for Transgender Health. (2011). Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people. Retrieved from https://www.wpath.org/media/cms/Documents/SOC%20v7/SOC%20V7_English.pdf

Leadership Styles Transformational Leadership - 1426 Words

To begin with this essay is to document a critical evaluation to prove that transformational leadership styles have a major influence on the employee motivation and organisational culture, hence influence the long term success of the business. A number of key leadership styles, together with the transformational leadership will be discussed and linked to real business-world examples. According to the research, there are three main leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire. It has been found that a transformational leadership style is typically more effective than transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles. Lowe et al (1996) points out, followers are most likely to appraise their†¦show more content†¦In order to make the best use of the critical success factors, the leaders must effectively communicate the CSFs with everyone involved in the business. This requirement of effective communication regarding the organisation’s values, purpose and significance of mission, brings out the importance of the practice of the transformational leaderships’ idealised influence (behaviour) factor. D. Goleman (2000) states leaders who have mastered four or more leadership styles -especially the authoritative, democratic, affiliative, and coaching styles—have the best climate and business performance. Even though the practice of transformational leadership is appreciated and recommended, Luthans (1998) comments that the process of recognising high performance and transformational characteristics of leaders has been challenging as organisations are obligated to transform and expand traditional management practices. Sir Richard Branson has constantly shared his views on management and leadership. During an interview at McGill University (2011), he states the employees of a business are directly behind the success of a business. 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Culture In International Marketing And Buyer Hehavior Essay Example For Students

Culture In International Marketing And Buyer Hehavior Essay IndexIntroductionCharacteristics of cultureInternational Marketing and buyer behaviorExamples of Cultural Blunders Made by International MarketersThe Culture Sensitivity of MarketsThe Development of Global CultureCultural Analysis of Global MarketsCross- cultural analysisConclusionReferencesIntroductionCulture is the learned ways of group living and the group’s responses to various stimuli. It is also the total way of life and thinking patterns that are passed from generation to generation. It encompasses norms, values, customs, art, and beliefs. Culture is the patterns of behavior and thinking that people living in social groups learn, create, and share. Culture distinguishes one human group from others. A peoples culture includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, rituals, art, technology, styles of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic systems. Anthropologists commonly use the term culture to refer to a society or group in which many or all people live and think in the same ways. Likewise, any group of people who share a common culture—and in particular, common rules of behavior and a basic form of social organization—constitutes a society. Thus, the terms culture and society are somewhat interchangeable. Characteristics of culture:Culture is prescriptive. It prescribes that kinds of behavior considered acceptable in the society. The prescriptive characteristic of culture simplifies a consumer’s decision-making process by limiting product choices to th ose, which are socially acceptable. These same characteristics create problems for those products not in tune with the consumer’s cultural beliefs. Culture is socially shared. Culture cannot exist by itself. Members of a society must share it. Thus acting to reinforce culture’s perspective nature. Culture is learned. Culture is not inherited genetically; it must be learned and acquired. Socialization or enculturation occurs when a person absorbs or learns the culture in which he or she is raised. Culture facilitates communication. One useful function provided by culture is to facilitate communication. Culture usually imposes common habits of though and feeling among people. Thus, within a given group culture makes it easier for people to communicate with one another. But culture may also impede communication across groups because of a lack of shared common culture values. This one reason why a standardized advertisement may have difficulty communicating with consumers in foreign countries. How marketing efforts interact with a culture determines the success or failure of a product. Advertising and promotion require special attention because the play a key role in communicating product concepts and benefits to the target segment. Culture is subjective people in different cultures often have different ideas about the same object. What is acceptable in one culture may not necessarily be so in another. In this regard, culture is both unique and arbitrary. Culture is enduring, because culture is shared and passed along from generation to generation, it is relatively stable and somewhat permanent. Old habits are hard to break, and people and people tend to maintain its own heritage in spite of continuously changing world. Culture is cumulative. Culture is based on hundreds or even thousands of years of accumulated circumstances. Each generation adds something of its own of culture before passing the heritage on to the next generation. Therefore culture tends to be broader based over time, because new ideas are incorporated and become a part of the culture. Culture is dynamic. Culture is passed along from generation to generation, but one should not assume that culture is static and immune to change. Culture is constantly changing it adapts itself to new situations and new sources of knowledge. International Marketing and buyer behavior:An understanding of buyer behavior is central to successful marketing. To develop effective marketing programs, the marketing manager must have knowledge of the needs and wants of potential buyers, how they arise, and how and where they are likely to be satisfied. Buyer behavior is affected by many factors. Class, education, age, and psychosocial traits are just four of the many factors useful in distinguishing different buyer groups. Researching the relationships that exist between the marketing-mix variables and buyer needs and response. From this effort have evolved many buyer behavior models, concepts, and techniques. * International Marketing’s Four Buyer Behavior TasksApparent similarities s uch as language can hide subtle but important differences between markets. International marketers have often shown a higher propensity to misinterpret a marketing situation when the cultural and economic environments of the foreign market are apparently the same as their own. For example, Philip Morris lost a considerable amount of money when tried to introduce a U.S. cigarette to the Canadian market. Management was under the erroneous impression that Canadians and Americans had similar smoking habits because the spoke the same language, had similar cultural heritages, dresses more or less the same, and watched many of the same television programs. Romeo And Juliet (1059 words) EssayLocal culture and social structure are now shaped by large and powerful commercial interests in ways that earlier anthropologists could not have imagined. Early anthropologists thought of societies and their cultures as fully independent systems. But today, many nations are multicultural societies, composed of numerous smaller subcultures. Cultures also cross national boundaries. For instance, people around the world now know a variety of English words and have contact with American cultural exports such as brand-name clothing and technological products, films and music, and mass-produced foods. Many anthropologists have become interested in how dominant societies can shape the culture of less powerful societies, a process some researchers call cultural hegemony. Today, many anthropologists openly oppose efforts by dominant world powers, such as the U.S. government and large corporations, to make unique smaller societies adopt Western commercial culture. Cultural Analysis of Global Markets:Whether a firm is pursuing a national-market or global-market strategy, it is interested in increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of its marketing programs within and across foreign markets. It must therefore know to what degree it can use the same product, pricing, promotion, and distribution strategies in more than one market. Unfortunately, the dual goals of program effectiveness and efficiency are in conflict. Market effectiveness is achieved by adapting marketing programs to marketing characteristics and conditions within markets. While doing so incurs additional marketing and production costs, the firm strengthens its market competitiveness by being more responsive to the needs of the marketplace. Efficiency, on the other hand, is achieved by minimizing marketing program changes across markets. Thus the firm minimizes marketing and production costs and strengthens its competitiveness vis-?-vis its competitors. The economic and competitive implications of both goals need to be taken into account when making program adaptation decisions. Both goals depend on understanding the cultural context of each market and the degree to which they are culturally similar. Thus, global companies need to develop a capability to conduct cross-cultural analysis of buyer behavior. Such a capability can help these companies optimally balance the competitive benefits to be derived from effectiveness and efficiency. Cross- cultural analysis:â€Å"Cross-cultural analysis is the systematic comparison of similarities and differences in the material and behavioral aspects of cultures.† In the marketing, cross-cultural analysis is used to gain an understanding of market segments within and across national boundaries. The purpose of this analysis is to determine whether the marketing program, or elements of the program, can be used in more than one foreign market or must be modified to meet local conditions. The approaches used to gain this understanding draw on the methods developed by such social sciences as anthropology, linguistics, and sociology. Standard marketing research techniques, such as multi attribute and psychographic techniques, can be used. For example, Berger, Stern and Johansson used to multi attribute method to study Japanese and American car buyers, and Boote used a psychographics approach to study the segmentation of the Europe community. In marketing, cross-cultural analysis most often involves identifying the effects culture may have on family purchasing roles, product function. Product design, sales and promotion activities, channel systems, and pricing. One approach suggested by Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard to the study of the effects of culture on buyer behavior, and thus in the marketing- mix elements. This involves answering a comprehensive list of questions, although these are neither exhaustive nor specific. For example, a manufacturer of processed foods would be interested in knowing the impact that culture has on such things as taste, purchasing habits, and eating habits. A manufacturer of household appliances, on the other hand, would be particularly interested in how potential buyers view a product’s reliability, durability, and reparability. Conclusion:There is no doubt that the international marketing process do faces a large set of variables as it take place over different countries and it does act in different environments. One of the most determinant environments to the success of the international marketing process is Culture, which hold the reason for many human acts and behavior. Reaching to that point international marketer should study deeply culture treaties of a country the company is planning to act in. so that special amendments in the organization overall plans and actions is made to act in accordance with the new market variables. References:? International Marketing, Sixth Edition. Vern ; Ravi. Dryden Press. ? International Marketing, Ninth Edition. Philip Cateora. IRWIN. ? International Marketing, Sixth Edition. Michael ; Ilkka. Harcourt. ? International Marketing, Tenth Edition. Phillip ; john graham. ? Consumer Behavior, Eighth Edition. James F. Engel ; Roger Blackwell, Bowel Miniard. Marketing Essays