Treating Transgender Youth - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2661 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2019/08/07 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Transgender Essay Did you like this example? ABSTRACT Site a statistical or longitudinal study in Abstract (Intro Summary) Keywords: Transgender, Gender Nonconforming, Gender Queer, Gender Non-Binary, Gender Fluid, Gender Minority, Gender-Affirmative Care, Puberty Blockers, Hormone Blockers, Puberty Suppression, Gender-Affirming Hormones INTRODUCTION Gender identity refers to an individuals psychological sense of ones gender as male, female, or other (Connolly et al., 2016). Gender identity is understood to be a complex intersection of biology, development, and socialization within a cultural context and research suggests that children develop a strong sense of gender identity at a young age, primarily influenced by cognitions and emotions, rather than by physically identifiable sex characteristics (Hidalgo et al., 2013). Because gender identity develops between 1.5 3 years old (with sexual orientation developing as early as age 8), understanding how to work with transgender youth is essential for any professional working with children in the medical or mental health fields (Keo-Meier et al., 2018). Transgender refers to individuals whose sex assigned at birth is different from their current gender identity or gender expression (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Treating Transgender Youth" essay for you Create order The term transgender has been used as an umbrella term to describe all individuals who experience incongruence between their internal gender identity and birth-assigned sex, however this term also includes people who identify in between boy/girl or man/woman (Turban, 2017). New terms are emerging, including gender nonconforming, gender fluid, gender queer or gender non-binary that capture the broader group of gender-variant youth, beyond only individuals who identify as transgender (Connolly et al., 2016). Prevalence of TGNC Youth and Psychiatric Co-Morbidity The size of the transgender or gender nonconforming (TGNC) population has been historically difficult to measure and likely underestimated due to the range of stigma, discrimination and prejudice these individuals experience, which reduces self-identifying substantially (Cicero Wesp, 2017). According to recent research, the prevalence of young people who identify as TGNC in the United States is between 0.17% 1.3%, significantly higher than previously estimated (Connolly et al. 2016). In another important large school-based study of adolescents to determine the prevalence of TGNC identity in Minnesota was 2.7% and varied significantly across gender, race/ethnicity, and economic indicators (Eisenberg et al., 2017). Other previous research identified the rate of adults who identify as transgender as closer to 0.6% (Timmins et al., 2017). With additional research designed to specifically identify TGNC youth found for those seeking gender-affirming surgeries, middle and high school students were as high as 1% and 0.17% of college students vs. 0.015% of adults (Connolly et al., 2016). While incidence may still be fairly low as percentage of overall population, there has been a significant increase in the number of TGNC youth seeking medical and mental health services in the past decade (Shumer et al., 2016). As such, the mental health field is at a crossroads in defining standards of care given the ever-evolving understanding of gender development (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). While research identifies that there is no one specific biological, psychological or social factor that explains the development of gender-identity in youth, adolescence is considered the peak of identity formation and a particularly vulnerable time for TGNC youth (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). While still small as percentage of the overall population, TGNC adolescents experience elevated rates of mental health problems as compared to their cisgender peers (Chodzen et al., 2018); cisgender describes individuals who have a gender identity congruent with the sex they were assigned at birth (Cicero Wesp, 2017). Research has continually identified higher rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality that are statistically significant in the TGNC group vs the general population (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). While research has continually found higher rates of mental health issues among TGNC samples (Timmins et al., 2017), estimates of depression rates have varied from as low as 25.7% to as high as 64%, with a recent, important longitudinal study of TGNC youth identifying depressive symptoms in 41.3% of TGNC students (vs 11.8% for cisgender students) (Connolly et al., 2016). Similarly, this study found higher rates of suicidality of 19.8% in TGNC (vs just 4.1% for cisgender students) and self-harm rates of 45.5% (vs. 23.4% for cisgender students) (Connolly et al., 2016). Other studies have shown TGNC youth are at an increased risk of sucidality as young as age 5, increasing with age (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Other research has found that 38% of TGNC youth had an anxiety disorder diagnosis (Reisner et al., 2016) and of youth who present at gender clinics, anxiety disorders were present in 16.3 to 55% of patients (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). Given the significant rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality in the TGNC youth population, understanding how best to approach treatment with this vulnerable population is imperative (Turban, 2017). The World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) recognizes that much psychological distress is socially induced and not inherent to being transgender or gender nonconforming (Weber-Main et al., 2018). However, the TGNC community is one of the most stigmatized and marginalized groups in the United States and the health of TGNC individuals is at risk due to exposure to such discrimination (Cicero Wesp, 2017). Many, but not all, TGNC individuals experience gender dysphoria (GD), which has been defined as: emotional distress stemming from incongruence between an individuals birth-assigned sex and their subjective sense of self as male, female, or an alternate gender (Chen et al., 2016). Because there is no one experience of gender, WPATH recognizes that there are a variety of therapeutic options for individuals seeking care for GD, with differences in both the number and type of interventions, as well as the order in which these take place (Shumer et al., 2016). Other research confirms the lack of consensus regarding the best approach to clinical care with gender-diverse and transgender youth (Chen, et al., 2016). WHAT CAUSES IT? Bechard, et al., GD, but also other factors (NO?) According to the DSM-5, both children and teens meet the criteria for gender dysphoria (previously referred to as Gender Identity Disorder) if they experience a substantial difference between their experienced and assigned-at-birth gender, which causes significant distress or impaired functioning that lasts for at least 6 months (Shumer et al., 2017). [HERE OR LATER While it is estimated that of children who suffer from GD, only between 10-20% will have GD that persists into adolescence (Bizic et al., 2018).]]] Despite the lack of definitive consensus among mental health providers regarding treatment, both WPATH Standards of Care and The Endocrine Society clinical practice guidelines define comprehensive approaches aimed to alleviate mental health discrepancies and improve outcomes (Shumer et al., 2016). Due to the wide variety of gender identity and expressions, affirming a childs communication of his/her authentic gender is paramount for healthy growth and development (Cicero Werp, 2017). Pioneering research indicates the benefits of gender affirmative care, which encourages the best prospect for individuals to follow their own paths to find positive emotional welfare (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). Under the belief that gender may be fluid rather than binary, supporting a TGNC youth living in the gender that feels most real and comfortable promotes exploration of gender without presuming a fixed trajectory with regard to gender identity is the very definition of affirmative care (Chen et al., 2016). According to WPATH, gender affirmative care involves different protocols and can include physical/medical (both reversible and irreversible) interventions, social/environmental support, as well as psychological interventions (Weber-Main et al., 2018). Gender affirmative protocols, including early social transition, pubertal blockade, cross-sex hormonal therapy, and gender-affirming surgery in adulthood show promising early data on more favorable outcomes for transgender or TGNC youth (Turban Ehrensaft, 2017). In addition, the first longitudinal study of patients undergoing comprehensive therapy for GD has shown data to support the notion that appropriate medical treatment for transgender or TGNC youth can lead to improved psychological functioning, with some question about the impact that puberty suppression (as part of the treatment protocols) have on this improved functioning (Connolly et al., 2016). Research indicates that the purpose of puberty suppression (or hormone blockers) is to relieve suffering caused by the development of secondary sex characteristics in puberty, to provide additional time to make a balanced decision regarding the permanent gender reassignment surgeries and to make living in the new gender identity more passable (Vrouenraets et al., 2015). There is evidence that TGNC youth who receive puberty blockers (as one component of gender affirmative care) show improvement in symptoms of psychological distress, including a reduction in self-report depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality. Given that puberty suppression falls into the category of fully reversible medical/physical interventions and often is an initial step into treatment (Connolly et al., 2016), it is important to understand how pubertal suppression impacts rates of depression, anxiety, self-harm behaviors and suicidality in transgender or TGNC youth (ages 9-12 years old at the start of the study). Treating Psychiatric Co-morbidity Due to the higher rates of psychiatric comorbidity, the positive results or gender-affirming therapy and supported social transition in childhood are encouraging (Connolly et al., 2016). The first longitudinal study of patients receiving comprehensive therapy treating GD supports the conclusion that providing gender variant youth with proper medical treatment can improve psychological functioning. In addition, this study found that psychiatric symptoms might actually be driven by medical incongruence between mind and body, not primarily psychiatric (Connolly et al., 2016). Evidence also suggests that social transition in transgender youth (name, clothing, physical appearance, pronouns, etc) contributes to improved psychological functioning that comparable to medical interventions (Connolly et al., 2016). GD While it is estimated that of children who suffer from GD, only between 10-20% will have GD that persists into adolescence (Bizic et al., 2018). Seeking treatment Importance of mental health assessment (Bechard et al., 2017) Pioneering research indicates the benefits of gender affirmative care, which delivers the best prospect for TGNC youth to achieve positive emotional health. Interventions that align with gender affirmative care vary by developmental stage and cover both physical and mental health (Edwards-Leeper et al., 2016). This more accurate understanding of the prevalence of gender nonconformity in youth vs adults impacts the direction of future research, with potential increased focus on youth (Connolly et al., 2016). Evidence suggests improved psychological outcomes (with less internalizing psychopathology) for transgender adolescents who receive both puberty suppression and cross-sex hormonal treatment, outlined by the World Professional Association of Transgender Health Standards and the Endocrine Society guidelines from 2009. However, the author highlights the lack of consensus around treating prepubertal transgender children (WPATH). There are roughly 3 clinical approaches; 1) utilizing psychotherapeutic interventions to help transgender children identity with their birth-assigned sex (assuming gender identity is malleable), 2) exploring gender identity with the youth without any specific interventions to lessen cross-gender identification, but advising against social transition, 3) promoting open exploration of gender identity, including support of social transition for children who desire it. The benefits of early social transition yielding desirable outcomes was first published in 2016 by , et all. Subsequent studies have revealed further support, including child-report metrics for transgender youth who have socially transitioned showing depression and anxiety rates on par with cisgender peers; levels of self-worth also matched controls. These findings are significant, given that postpubertal social transition for transgender adolescents has been generally accepted as advantageous, however prepubertal social transition has been fairly contentious and unsupported until now (Olson G?lgez, 2017) Limitations New terms are emerging, including gender nonconforming, gender fluid, gender-queer or gender non-binary and additional research is needed to understand both prevalence and psychiatric comorbidity in the broader group of gender-variant youth (Connolly et al., 2016). While there has been an increase in recent research on optimal treatment protocols for transgender youth, few studies have been conducted on gender non-binary youth, such as understanding the effects of gender-affirming therapy; including, how to support a child in social transition if the child does not identify with any one specific gender? How do hormone blockers or affirming hormone therapy affect this population? In addition to expanding awareness for the need for more research on the experiences of subgroups of gender nonconforming youth, it is important to gather information from individuals in the general population, not just young people who present at gender clinics (a dominant source of past samples). Implications for understanding prevalence, psychological functioning, and treatment options are significant. While the authors provide an improved understanding of the prevalence of gender nonconformity/ transgender in adolescents/young adults, there is a lack of knowledge ab out transgender children younger than 10. As illustrated, more research on these subgroups of gender nonconforming youth will be critical before treatment protocols can be generalized. -Future research would benefit from considering subgroup differences (gender variant sample including both binary and nonbinary identification) (Reisner et al 2016) References Bechard, M., VanderLaan, D. P., Wood, H., Wasserman, L., Zucker, K. J. (2017). Psychosocial and psychological vulnerability in adolescents with gender dysphoria: A proof of principle study. Journal of Sex Marital Therapy, 43(7), 678â€Å"688. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2016.1232325 Bizic, M.R, Jeftovic, M., Pusica, S., Stojanovic, B., Duisin, D.,Vujovic, S., Rakic, V., Djordjevic, M.L. (2018). Gender Dysphoria: Bioethical Aspects of Medical Treatment. BioMed Research International, Vol 2018 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9652305 Chen, D, Hidalgo, M.A., Leibowitz, S., Leininger J., Simons, L., Finlayson, C., Garofalo, R., (2016). Multidisciplinary Care for Gender-Diverse Youth: Narrative Review and Unique Model of Gender-Affirming Care, Transgender Health, 1.1 https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/trgh.2016.0009 Chen, D., Edwards-Leeper, L., Stancin, T., Tishelman, A. (2018). Advancing the practice of pediatric psychology with transgender youth: State of the science, ongoing controversies, and future directions. Clinical Practice in Pediatric Psychology, 6(1), 73â€Å"83. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/cpp0000229 Chodzen, G., Hidalgo, M. A., Chen, D., Garofalo, R. (2018). Minority stress factors associated with depression and anxiety among transgender and gender-nonconforming youth. Journal of Adolescent Health. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.006 Cicero, E. C., Wesp, L. M. (2017). Supporting the Health and Well-Being of Transgender Students. Journal of School Nursing, 33(2), 95â€Å"108. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840516689705 Connolly, M. D., Zervos, M. J., Barone, C. J., II, Johnson, C. C., Joseph, C. L. M. (2016). The mental health of transgender youth: Advances in understanding. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(5), 489â€Å"495. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016 Edwards-Leeper, L., Leibowitz, S., Sangganjanavanich, V. F. (2016). Affirmative practice with transgender and gender nonconforming youth: Expanding the model. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3(2), 165â€Å"172. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd000 Eisenberg, M. E., Gower, A. L., McMorris, B. J., Rider, G. N., Shea, G., Coleman, E. (2017). Original article: Risk and Protective Factors in the Lives of Transgender/Gender Nonconforming Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 521â€Å"526. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.014 Keo-Meier, C., Ehrensaft, D. (2018). Introduction to the gender affirmative model. In C. Keo-Meier D. Ehrensaft (Eds.), The gender affirmative model: An interdisciplinary approach to supporting transgender and gender expansive children. (pp. 3â€Å"19). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000095-001 Olson, K. R., G?lgez, S. (2017). Early findings from the TransYouth project: Gender development in transgender children. Child Development Perspectives. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/cdep.12268 Reisner, S. L., Katz-Wise, S. L., Gordon, A. R., Corliss, H. L., Austin, S. B. (2016). Original article: Social Epidemiology of Depression and Anxiety by Gender Identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59, 203â€Å"208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.04.006 Shumer, D. E., Nokoff, N. J., Spack, N. P. (2016). Advances in the Care of Transgender Children and Adolescents. Advances in Pediatrics, 63, 79â€Å"102. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.018 Timmins, L., Rimes, K. A., Rahman, Q. (2017). Minority stressors and psychological distress in transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(3), 328â€Å"340. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000237.supp (Supplemental) Turban, J. L. (2017). Transgender youth: The building evidence base for early social transition. Journal of the American Academy of Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(2), 101â€Å"102. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2016.11.008 Turban, J. L., Ehrensaft, D. (2017). Research review: Gender identity in youth: Treatment paradigms and controversies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12833 Vrouenraets, L. J. J. J., Fredriks, A. M., Hannema, S. E., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., de Vries, M. C. (2015). Early medical treatment of children and adolescents with gender dysphoria: An empirical ethical study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(4), 367â€Å"373. https://doi-org.dominican.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.004 World Professional Association for Transgender Health. (2011). Standards of care for the health of transsexual, transgender, and gender nonconforming people. Retrieved from https://www.wpath.org/media/cms/Documents/SOC%20v7/SOC%20V7_English.pdf

Leadership Styles Transformational Leadership - 1426 Words

To begin with this essay is to document a critical evaluation to prove that transformational leadership styles have a major influence on the employee motivation and organisational culture, hence influence the long term success of the business. A number of key leadership styles, together with the transformational leadership will be discussed and linked to real business-world examples. According to the research, there are three main leadership styles, specifically transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire. It has been found that a transformational leadership style is typically more effective than transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles. Lowe et al (1996) points out, followers are most likely to appraise their†¦show more content†¦In order to make the best use of the critical success factors, the leaders must effectively communicate the CSFs with everyone involved in the business. 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Culture In International Marketing And Buyer Hehavior Essay Example For Students

Culture In International Marketing And Buyer Hehavior Essay IndexIntroductionCharacteristics of cultureInternational Marketing and buyer behaviorExamples of Cultural Blunders Made by International MarketersThe Culture Sensitivity of MarketsThe Development of Global CultureCultural Analysis of Global MarketsCross- cultural analysisConclusionReferencesIntroductionCulture is the learned ways of group living and the group’s responses to various stimuli. It is also the total way of life and thinking patterns that are passed from generation to generation. It encompasses norms, values, customs, art, and beliefs. Culture is the patterns of behavior and thinking that people living in social groups learn, create, and share. Culture distinguishes one human group from others. A peoples culture includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, rituals, art, technology, styles of dress, ways of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic systems. Anthropologists commonly use the term culture to refer to a society or group in which many or all people live and think in the same ways. Likewise, any group of people who share a common culture—and in particular, common rules of behavior and a basic form of social organization—constitutes a society. Thus, the terms culture and society are somewhat interchangeable. Characteristics of culture:Culture is prescriptive. It prescribes that kinds of behavior considered acceptable in the society. The prescriptive characteristic of culture simplifies a consumer’s decision-making process by limiting product choices to th ose, which are socially acceptable. These same characteristics create problems for those products not in tune with the consumer’s cultural beliefs. Culture is socially shared. Culture cannot exist by itself. Members of a society must share it. Thus acting to reinforce culture’s perspective nature. Culture is learned. Culture is not inherited genetically; it must be learned and acquired. Socialization or enculturation occurs when a person absorbs or learns the culture in which he or she is raised. Culture facilitates communication. One useful function provided by culture is to facilitate communication. Culture usually imposes common habits of though and feeling among people. Thus, within a given group culture makes it easier for people to communicate with one another. But culture may also impede communication across groups because of a lack of shared common culture values. This one reason why a standardized advertisement may have difficulty communicating with consumers in foreign countries. How marketing efforts interact with a culture determines the success or failure of a product. Advertising and promotion require special attention because the play a key role in communicating product concepts and benefits to the target segment. Culture is subjective people in different cultures often have different ideas about the same object. What is acceptable in one culture may not necessarily be so in another. In this regard, culture is both unique and arbitrary. Culture is enduring, because culture is shared and passed along from generation to generation, it is relatively stable and somewhat permanent. Old habits are hard to break, and people and people tend to maintain its own heritage in spite of continuously changing world. Culture is cumulative. Culture is based on hundreds or even thousands of years of accumulated circumstances. Each generation adds something of its own of culture before passing the heritage on to the next generation. Therefore culture tends to be broader based over time, because new ideas are incorporated and become a part of the culture. Culture is dynamic. Culture is passed along from generation to generation, but one should not assume that culture is static and immune to change. Culture is constantly changing it adapts itself to new situations and new sources of knowledge. International Marketing and buyer behavior:An understanding of buyer behavior is central to successful marketing. To develop effective marketing programs, the marketing manager must have knowledge of the needs and wants of potential buyers, how they arise, and how and where they are likely to be satisfied. Buyer behavior is affected by many factors. Class, education, age, and psychosocial traits are just four of the many factors useful in distinguishing different buyer groups. Researching the relationships that exist between the marketing-mix variables and buyer needs and response. From this effort have evolved many buyer behavior models, concepts, and techniques. * International Marketing’s Four Buyer Behavior TasksApparent similarities s uch as language can hide subtle but important differences between markets. International marketers have often shown a higher propensity to misinterpret a marketing situation when the cultural and economic environments of the foreign market are apparently the same as their own. For example, Philip Morris lost a considerable amount of money when tried to introduce a U.S. cigarette to the Canadian market. Management was under the erroneous impression that Canadians and Americans had similar smoking habits because the spoke the same language, had similar cultural heritages, dresses more or less the same, and watched many of the same television programs. Romeo And Juliet (1059 words) EssayLocal culture and social structure are now shaped by large and powerful commercial interests in ways that earlier anthropologists could not have imagined. Early anthropologists thought of societies and their cultures as fully independent systems. But today, many nations are multicultural societies, composed of numerous smaller subcultures. Cultures also cross national boundaries. For instance, people around the world now know a variety of English words and have contact with American cultural exports such as brand-name clothing and technological products, films and music, and mass-produced foods. Many anthropologists have become interested in how dominant societies can shape the culture of less powerful societies, a process some researchers call cultural hegemony. Today, many anthropologists openly oppose efforts by dominant world powers, such as the U.S. government and large corporations, to make unique smaller societies adopt Western commercial culture. Cultural Analysis of Global Markets:Whether a firm is pursuing a national-market or global-market strategy, it is interested in increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of its marketing programs within and across foreign markets. It must therefore know to what degree it can use the same product, pricing, promotion, and distribution strategies in more than one market. Unfortunately, the dual goals of program effectiveness and efficiency are in conflict. Market effectiveness is achieved by adapting marketing programs to marketing characteristics and conditions within markets. While doing so incurs additional marketing and production costs, the firm strengthens its market competitiveness by being more responsive to the needs of the marketplace. Efficiency, on the other hand, is achieved by minimizing marketing program changes across markets. Thus the firm minimizes marketing and production costs and strengthens its competitiveness vis-?-vis its competitors. The economic and competitive implications of both goals need to be taken into account when making program adaptation decisions. Both goals depend on understanding the cultural context of each market and the degree to which they are culturally similar. Thus, global companies need to develop a capability to conduct cross-cultural analysis of buyer behavior. Such a capability can help these companies optimally balance the competitive benefits to be derived from effectiveness and efficiency. Cross- cultural analysis:â€Å"Cross-cultural analysis is the systematic comparison of similarities and differences in the material and behavioral aspects of cultures.† In the marketing, cross-cultural analysis is used to gain an understanding of market segments within and across national boundaries. The purpose of this analysis is to determine whether the marketing program, or elements of the program, can be used in more than one foreign market or must be modified to meet local conditions. The approaches used to gain this understanding draw on the methods developed by such social sciences as anthropology, linguistics, and sociology. Standard marketing research techniques, such as multi attribute and psychographic techniques, can be used. For example, Berger, Stern and Johansson used to multi attribute method to study Japanese and American car buyers, and Boote used a psychographics approach to study the segmentation of the Europe community. In marketing, cross-cultural analysis most often involves identifying the effects culture may have on family purchasing roles, product function. Product design, sales and promotion activities, channel systems, and pricing. One approach suggested by Engel, Blackwell, and Miniard to the study of the effects of culture on buyer behavior, and thus in the marketing- mix elements. This involves answering a comprehensive list of questions, although these are neither exhaustive nor specific. For example, a manufacturer of processed foods would be interested in knowing the impact that culture has on such things as taste, purchasing habits, and eating habits. A manufacturer of household appliances, on the other hand, would be particularly interested in how potential buyers view a product’s reliability, durability, and reparability. Conclusion:There is no doubt that the international marketing process do faces a large set of variables as it take place over different countries and it does act in different environments. One of the most determinant environments to the success of the international marketing process is Culture, which hold the reason for many human acts and behavior. Reaching to that point international marketer should study deeply culture treaties of a country the company is planning to act in. so that special amendments in the organization overall plans and actions is made to act in accordance with the new market variables. References:? International Marketing, Sixth Edition. Vern ; Ravi. Dryden Press. ? International Marketing, Ninth Edition. Philip Cateora. IRWIN. ? International Marketing, Sixth Edition. Michael ; Ilkka. Harcourt. ? International Marketing, Tenth Edition. Phillip ; john graham. ? Consumer Behavior, Eighth Edition. James F. Engel ; Roger Blackwell, Bowel Miniard. Marketing Essays